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2
THEORIES
OF DEVELOPMENT:
Interpreting
the Lifespan
Summary Outline
I. Why
Study Theories?
A. Provides an organizational structure for
vast amounts of information
B. Guides research
1. Theoretical orientation guides
hypotheses and directs method
2. Provides a framework within which to
interpret results
C.
Helps in comparison and contrast of
different belief systems
D.
Furthers the science and application of
developmental principles
II. Psychoanalytic
Theories
A. Freud’s theory of the development of
personality
1. Emphasis on the role of the unconscious
2. Stresses importance of early years
B. Freud’s five stages of personality
development
1. Age specific
a. Oral
b. Anal
c. Phallic
d.
Latency
e. Genital
2. Defense mechanisms as coping strategies
C. Freud’s structures of the mind and their
purposes
1. Fueled by psychic energy or libido
2. Emerge sequentially
3. Seek to strike balance
a. Id
b. Ego
c. Superego
D. Memory
1.
Unconscious vs. conscious
III. Psychosocial
Theory
A. Erikson’s theory of development:
epigenesis
1. Emphasis on the impact of social
experiences
2. Each stage of growth characterized by a
life crisis
3. Extends through the lifespan
4. Cross-cultural
influences
B. Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial
development
1. Basic trust vs. mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. Initiative vs. guilt
4. Industry vs. inferiority
5. Identity and repudiation vs. identity
confusion
6. Intimacy and solidarity vs. isolation
7. Generativity vs. stagnation
8. Integrity vs. despair
IV. Cognitive
Theories
A. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
1. Emphasis on the influence of thought
processes
2. Progressive formation of sophisticated
cognitive structures
a. Actively construct meaning within the
environment
b. Understanding object permanence
3. Piaget’s Stages
a. Sensorimotor
b. Preoperations
c. Concrete operations
d. Formal operations
4. Functional invariants
a. Adaptation to the environment
i. Assimilation—how
cognitive structures incorporate data
ii. Accommodation—how
cognitive structures change
iii. Equilibrium—the
balance between assimilation and accommodation
b. Organization
5. Schemes—Piaget
a. Organized patterns of thought and
action
b. Basic building blocks of thought
V. Sociocultural
Theory
A. Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
B. Three fundamental themes
1. Unique manner of identification and use
of theory of development
2. Social origin of the mind
a. Intrapsycholgical: elementary,
biological processes
b. Interpsychological: processes shaped by
social and
cultural
processes
c. Internalization
3. Importance of speech in development
C. Zone of proximal development
1. Influence of social interaction on
cognitive development
VI. The
Behavioral Approach
A. Pavlov’s and Watson’s classical
conditioning
1. Experiment with dogs and ringing bell
2. Involuntary process elicited through a
learning process
B. Skinner’s operant conditioning
1. Use of consequences to shape behavior
2. Importance of reinforcement, punishment
3. Development is continuous (vs. marked
stages)
4. Environment key to understanding
behavior
5. Behavior is a causal chain of three
links
a. Stimulus
b. Response
c. Consequences
i. Reinforcement
ii. Punishment
iii. Extinction = no attendant consequence 6. Two kinds of reinforcement
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Negative reinforcement
C. Bandura’s social cognitive learning
1. Observational learning
2. Results of observing others as well as
direct experience of consequences
a. Importance and impact of modeling
i. Strengthen
or weaken existing responses
ii. Cause the reappearance of forgotten
responses
iii. Elicit
new behaviors
b. Can contribute to self-efficacy
i.
Goal-setting
ii Persistence
3. Social (cognition) learning theory
VII. A
Bioecological Model
A. Reciprocal interactions are
bidirectional
1. Results in change
B.
Componential model
1. Proximal processes
2. Person and the individual’s
contribution
3. Context and the environment
4. Time
C. Bronfenbrenner’s Interactional (nested)
System
1. Microsystem
2. Mesosystem
3. Exosystem
4. Macrosystem
5. Chronosystem—added
element of time
VIII. Developmental
Theory: Current status and future
directions
A. Need multidimensional research
B. Focus
on change that occurs over the lifespan
1. Interaction among levels of development
2. Developmental systems theory
a. Popularized by Lerner, Gottlieb, etc.
b. Constant, reciprocal interactions in
heredity and environment
c. Construct our own changing view of the
world in context of several influences
i. Individual
characteristics
ii. Context
or environment
iii. Relationship between individual
characteristics and context
iv. Time
3.
No single, primary determinant or
causal influence on behavior, development
IX. Unique theories of development
A.
Life course theory by Elder
1.
Focus on changes in aging over the
lifespan
B.
Evolutionary developmental psychology
1.
Darwin
a. Importance of gene action in
development
C. Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs
1. Importance of growing/developing to
achieve potential
2. Five types of needs
a. Physiological (hunger and sleep)
b. Safety (security, protection,
stability, free from anxiety, fear)
c. Love and belonging (need for family and
friends)
d. Esteem (positive opinion of self and
also by others)
e. Self-actualization (achieving
potential)
3. Only 2% of population achieves all five
levels
X. From
Neurons to Neighborhoods:
The
Science of Early Childhood Development
A. Study by National Research
Council Institute of Medicine (2000)
1. Synthesis of many years of early
childhood development studies
2. Goal is to improve policies aimed at
raising/educating children
XI. Conclusion & Summary
Learning
Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student
should be able to address the following:
1. How does psychoanalytic theory explain
development across the lifespan?
2. Identify and describe the developmental
stages in Freud’s theory.
3. Compare and contrast:
o
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory vs.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
o
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
vs. Vygotsky’s cognitive structural theory.
4. Describe defense mechanisms. Give an
example of one.
5. What are Erikson’s eight stages of
human development? What is a life crisis?
6. Identify and explain key concepts of
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
7. What is the behavioral perspective on
development?
8. What are the key points of
reinforcement in Skinner’s operant conditioning theory?
9. What did Bronfenbrenner believe to be
the cornerstone of childhood development?
10. What is the status of current
developmental theory?
11. Describe how the process of change—assimilation
and accommodation—refines one’s concepts.
12. Describe the role of culture in
development.
13. Examine the role of social processes in
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.
14. Explain the role of reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction in Skinner’s behavioral theory.
15. Briefly discuss life course theory and
evolutionary developmental psychology.
16. What is the status of current
developmental theory?
Key Terms
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· accommodation
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· mesosystem
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· adaptation
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· microsystem
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· assimilation
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· modeling
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· bioecological
model
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· negative
reinforcement
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· classical conditioning
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· object
permanence
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· cognitive
structures
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· observational
learning
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· defense
mechanisms
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· operant conditioning
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· developmental
systems theory
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· organization
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· ego
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· positive
reinforcement
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· equilibration
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· psychoanalytic
theory
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· evolutionary
developmental
psychology
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· psychosocial
theory
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· exosystem
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· punishment
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· extinction
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· reciprocal
interactions
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· id
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· reinforcement
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· identity
crisis
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· self-efficacy
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· information-processing
theory
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· social
(cognitive) learning theory
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· life
course theory
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· superego
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· life
crisis
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· theory
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· macrosystem
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· zone
of proximal development (ZPD)
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Lecture Suggestions
1. Truth
or Consequences: Why We Study Theories
Theories
are not to be proven true or false. Rather, their usefulness lies in their
ability to generate questions. Take, for example, the studies conducted by D.
O. Hebb. Hebb was a psychologist and theorist who made significant
contributions to the advancement of neuropsychology. He wanted to investigate
how neurons in the brain contributed to the process of learning. He spent many
years studying brain surgery and human behavior. In 1949, he wrote The Organization of Behavior. In the
book, Hebb was able to fuse for the first time the biology of the brain
together with the workings of the mind. Hebb’s research fueled further investigations
into the biological functioning of the brain and the workings of neurons. Later
work in the field of neurology discovered a chemical process that prompts the
firing of neurons in the brain. But Hebb’s initial theory remained as a
cornerstone to help prompt further investigation into the next theory of human
development.
Hebb’s
theory was not true, but it was useful to get us to the next step of research.
Engage students in a discussion emphasizing the importance of theories and how
and why they evolve. Explore the meaning of “finding the truth” versus
“theorizing” in human development.
2. Similarities
and Differences Between Freud and Erikson
Psychoanalytic
theory describes developmental changes in a personality and one’s sense of
self. Freud's and Erikson’s theories of personality development are both grounded
in psychoanalytic theory, but each theory has significant contextual
differences.
Both
Freud and Erikson agree:
·
a person's success in moving through
various stages of development shapes his or her personality (stage theorists),
·
personality is a result of the
interaction of internal needs and response to those needs from significant
people in the environment and
·
unconscious and conscious motives
determine behavior.
Differences
between Freud and Erikson:
·
Freud’s drive theory focuses on the
importance of meeting instinctual drives, the sexual drive, the life-preserving
drive, and the aggressive drive.
·
Freud argued that stage changes were
caused by maturational changes in the nervous system that change the focus in
body sensitivity, thus changing one’s internal drives.
·
Erikson believed that behavior is best
understood by focusing on the drive for identity, a cognitive process that is a
result of changes in one’s social environment and individual maturation.
·
Erikson theorized that cognitive skills
develop independently and are not simply a function of basic gratification.
Erikson also argued that psychosocial stage changes stem from the individual’s
interactions with his/her social context.
Discuss
the similarities and differences between Freud's and Erikson’s theories with
the class. In the class discussion, have students isolate the most important
differences and present the historic break between Freud and Erickson.
3. How
Do Children Learn?
Piaget
and Skinner are both behavioral theorists with different key areas of focus. Point
out the different questions each theorist asks and how these questions relate
to their theories. For example, Piaget and Skinner ask, “How do children learn?”
but the question means different things to each theorist.
Piaget’s
Focus:
·
Cognitive structure
·
Structure of the thinking process
·
Asks why children think the way they do
Skinner’s
Focus:
·
Environment and how it controls the
learning process
·
Cannot look into the “black box” of the
mind
Think
about the following questions:
1. Can the child tell him why the moon
appears to follow him when he walks down the country lane?
2.
Can
the child provide reasons for the difference in the water levels as the liquid
is poured from the tall, thin vessel into the short, wide vessel?
How
would Piaget address these questions?
Piaget
wants to understand how a child mentally conceptualizes his or her environment.
To Piaget, the question means: How does the mind organize information as the
child interacts with the environment?
How
would Skinner address these questions?
Skinner
wants to understand how the environment can be modified to reinforce the
child’s behavior. To Skinner, the question means: How can the child be reinforced
so that he or she consistently and correctly states that the moon appears to
follow the person down the lane because of the influence of the great distance
between the moon and the child? How can I change the environment so as to
demonstrate for the child that the volume of water does not change when the
shape of the container changes?
The
structure of the mind interests Piaget, whereas the observed behavior that it
produces interests Skinner. This basic difference may be at the heart of the
differences in the approaches, questions, and methods of each theorist in
examining the question “How do children learn?”
4. The
A,B,Cs of Behaviorism
Behaviorism
is the foundation for Skinner’s operant conditioning and Bandura’s social
learning theory. This theory states that behavior is controlled by that which
reinforces or punishes, whether directly experienced or observed, respectively.
To assist students in the remembrance of basic principles, present the operant
sequence as “A,B,Cs of behaviorism.”
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The
sequence helps to focus on the consequences and the increase or decrease in
target behavior defining reinforcement and punishment, respectively. For
example, students take an exam and get a grade; when an adolescent cuts
classes, he/she has to stay after school; when an employee completes his/her
time on a job, the worker gets paid, but when he/she does not work (without an
acceptable reason) he or she gets fired.
5. Basic
Operant Conditioning Principles
In
operant conditioning, behavior is controlled by its consequences. When a
student prepares well and performs well on an exam, he/she gets a good grade;
when an adolescent cuts classes, she has to stay after school; when a driver
parks illegally, he gets fined; when a cardholder returns overdue library
books, she gets fined; and when we speed, we get a ticket. The probability of
behavior occurring again depends on the consequences that follow that behavior.
Rewards,
or reinforcers, follow some behaviors. Reinforcement results in an increase in
a particular behavior. When a student prepares well in advance for an exam and
receives a good grade, the good grade reinforces his studying behavior, and he
is likely to continue this behavior in the future. If a woman responds with
donations to a community request for help with a clothing drive for the
homeless, she may receive praise for being part of that effort, and that praise
will reinforce her helping behavior; she is likely to help with a future
clothing drive.
Punishment
follows some behaviors, and punishments can result in a decrease in those
behaviors. If a driver carelessly parks her car in an illegal lane and receives
a $25 fine, she may be less likely to park in that spot in the future.
Students
often misunderstand the difference between negative reinforcement and
punishment. A negative reinforcement removes
an aversive stimulus, which results in the probability that the behavior will
occur again, whereas a punishment produces
an aversive stimulus, thus resulting in a decrease in the behavior.
Students
should be able to recognize the difficulty of controlling behavior. It is often
difficult to grasp why individuals continue certain behaviors. Discussion of
antecedents, behaviors, and consequences of those behaviors for selected
populations (such as juvenile delinquents) and treatments (such as token
economies) may help students understand the laws of learning principles.
6. Ripples
in the Water
In
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, reciprocal interaction between a person
and his/her environment takes center stage. How is that like the Developmental
Systems Theory? How does it differ?
When
a student prepares by studying and performs well in school, how might that have
an influence on his/her classes, teacher, school, etc.? What might each of
these theories say about the infinite possibility of influence?
Compare
an individual’s influence on his/her environment to the ripples made by a single
stone cast into a lake. How then does the lake influence the stone? What other
factors might play a role?
7. Future
Theorists: "Where Do We Go from Here?"
The quest for understanding human
development encompasses many theories. A frequent criticism of previous
developmental theorists like Freud and Piaget suggests their theories were too
"one-sided." That is, examining just one or two aspects of the
biopsychosocial model cannot unravel human development. Rather, new studies
suggest that we must factor in other genetic, neural, behavioral, and
environmental conditions to grasp a better understanding of development.
Lerner, for example, takes his developmental systems theory beyond the
biopsychosocial model. Lerner theorizes that we construct our view of the world
by reciprocal actions of biopsychosocial characteristics with the
environment.
Discuss Lerner's theory of development
with students. Have students create their own theories on human development.
Incorporate information from other theorists. Explore the influences of
variables like interactions between individuals and the environment, the effect
of change, time and levels. Spend some class time brainstorming and
experimenting with new ideas. Create a unique theory of development.
Classroom or Student Activities
1. Schedules
of Reinforcement
In
the real world, behaviors are not reinforced every time they occur. Rather than
being reinforced continuously, most behaviors are reinforced on a partial, or
intermittent, schedule.
Schedules of reinforcement
refers to when behavior is to be reinforced. Schedules of reinforcement have
two dimensions. One dimension focuses on whether reinforcement is delivered
after a specified number of responses or a specific amount of time (called a fixed schedule) or by an average number of responses or amount of
time (called a variable schedule). An
individual also can be reinforced on the number of responses (a ratio schedule)
or on the amount of time that elapses (an interval schedule). The intermittent
reinforcement schedule is based on an irregular schedule of reward, so that the
behavior (operant) never knows when to expect the payoff. Intermittent
reinforcement schedules are the most persistent in increasing behavior and
prolonging its demonstration.
Students
can more easily understand the impact of different schedules of reinforcement
if they identify aspects of their own lives that fit each of the four
schedules. For example, if a course grade is determined by students’ scores on 10
“pop” quizzes given throughout the semester, the grade is given in terms of a
variable interval schedule. Ask students how this type of schedule influences
studying patterns. (Typically, one learns to study a “little” regularly to
maximize results.) Students are on a fixed interval schedule if another
instructor gives a test every ninth class period. Ask students how this pattern
influences studying patterns (typically, more studying occurs in the few days
right before a test and little immediately after a test). Ask students to think
of ways in which they are on a ratio schedule. Ask students what they can do to
reinforce themselves to avoid disadvantages of the schedule used by the course
grading system.
It
also is helpful to discuss schedules of reinforcement in terms of other life
experiences (e.g., dieting, leisure activities, gardening, and dating). Ask
students whether behavior is likely to persist or become extinguished after a
particular schedule of reinforcement. Discuss the importance of schedules in
maintaining desirable behaviors.
2. Biopsychosocial Theory and Model
Think
about the biopsychosocial theory model of a great tennis player. For instance,
Anna is a 21-year-old college student in Florida
·
Biological—strength,
muscle fibers, joint flexibility, hand-eye coordination.
·
Psychological—is
“daddy’s little girl,” constant praise, highly admired.
·
Sociological—family
has economic means to pay for tennis lessons,
club membership, equipment, etc.
All
three factors combine to help Anna be the best possible tennis player she can
be. Her background suggests an ideal model for biopsychosocial theory. Many of
the theorists discussed in this chapter only address two out of the three
factors.
Have
students compose their own biopsychosocial theory of sympathy. What are the
biology, psychology, and sociology of a sympathetic person? How is this theory
different from the psychosocial theory and from the cognitive developmental
theory?
3. Search
the Literature
Based
on the information on psychoanalytic theory described in the text in this
chapter and the information on research design in Chapter 1, ask students if
they can think of any studies that would indicate that Freud was right about
defense mechanisms. Ask students to conduct a literature search using
appropriate software to locate articles examining Freud’s theory of defense
mechanisms. What are the findings? Compare findings from different studies.
4. Finding
Contexts in Development
Provide
a review of Gottlieb’s levels of interaction that influence development (e.g.,
genetic, neural, behavioral, and environmental). Remind students that these
levels are bidirectional, with each level dependent on the next and influenced
by the next level for the production of a behavior or trait. Then review
Lerner’s concept of developmental contextualism, with the four major forces in
development (i.e., physical settings, social influences, personal
characteristics, and influence of time).
Each
group of students should pick a developmental event (e.g., walking, learning to
read). Half of the groups should analyze their topic using Gottlieb’s levels and
determine how those processes would produce a behavior or trait. The remaining
groups should use Lerner’s forces. After taking time to reorganize their
thoughts, the students may present their conclusions and, in a class setting,
contrast and compare these approaches. They may then evaluate the models for
completeness in describing the developmental process. Their evaluations should
include comparisons with a strict biological or environmental explanation. This
activity allows students to internalize the richness and accuracy of
interactions rather than adherence to a unidirectional dichotomy of nature
versus nurture alone.
Questions for Review and Discussion
1. What is the purpose of organizational
framework of theories?
2. How do theories guide research?
3. Where would you look for the
theoretical foundation of a study in a research report (e.g., empirical article)?
4. Identify Freud’s three structures of
the psyche and explain the role of each. How does each structure relate to the
other two?
5. Examine the defense mechanisms and give
an example.
6. What are Freud’s stages of personality
development and the possible outcomes for each?
7. Where are you in Erikson’s stages of
development? Does his concept of crisis for that stage “fit” you? Please explain
why it does or does not seem realistic.
8. What are examples of egocentrism in our
behavior? Describe the behavior, and explain how it matches Piaget’s definition
of egocentrism.
9. Explore how assimilation and
accommodation work as a child tries to understand the world.
10. Consider your own theory of cognitive
development. What are some of the assumptions you make about ways in which
other people’s behavior is affected by their beliefs, emotions, or ideas? How
do your assumptions fit into a cultural contextual model of cognitive
development?
11. Provide examples of positive and negative
reinforcement that parents can use to encourage healthy development in their
children.
12. How does the future of research embrace
both aspects of individual growth: biological predispositions of heredity and
the psychosocial aspects of the environment?
13. Where did Systems Theory begin? How does
this and bioecological interaction better explain individual development? Or does it?
Website Resources
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Child Development Resources
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Child Development
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Developmental Psychology
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Society for Research in Adolescence
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Society for Research on Adult
Development
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Additional
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Urie
Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Theory
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